Renewable Energy in India

Renewable Energy in India As a developing country with the worlds second highest population, India is facing nationwide shortage in power supply. It is very essential to make optimum use of all available resources of power inside the nation and thus found that the New and Renewable Sources of Energy (NRSE) can contribute significantly towards power generation in forthcoming years. Development of new technology and advancement in this sector has lead to commercialization of numerous NRSE technologies. This sector has also got an advantage of reducing pollution and creating awareness of the necessity to reduce carbon emissions to protect the environment. Recognizing the importance of renewable energy sources, the Government of India set up a fully fledged independent department named Department of Non-conventional Energy Sources in 1982 and later on the name converted into the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) in the year 1992. MNRE acts as the nodal agency of the Government of India for all matters r elating renewable energy. It undertakes policy making, planning, promotion and co-ordination functions relating to all aspects of renewable energy. New reports states that India is the fourth largest nation in installed power generation capacity in the field of renewable energy sources with a total capacity of 17,594 MW. Wind, Solar, Hydro, Biomass and Geothermal are main renewable energy sources and India has high potential of these resources to exploit. Power generation from wind and solar energy resources has posted enormous growth in recent years. India became favorite destination for renewable energy technology developers, equipment manufacturers and service providers. Certain measures are adopted by the Government of India for the eradication of power poverty, commercial exploitation of renewable energy resources by ensuring affordability and availability as well. The estimated potential of renewable energy in the country is around 85,000 MW from commercially exploitable sources. Whereas wind resources accounts to 45,000 MW, small hydro projects dominates 15,000 MW and 25,000 MW from biomass/bio energy sources. It is calculated that India has the potential to generate 35 MW/Km2 with the use of solar photovoltaic and solar thermal energy. The main resources of renewable energy in India are as follows: Wind Energy Solar Energy Hydro Power Bio-mass Geothermal Energy Tidal energy Wind Energy. With reference to the world wind energy report-2009, India has the 5th largest installed wind power capacity in the world following USA, China, Germany and Spain. India is the second largest wind energy market in Asia, with a growth rate of 14% reaching a capacity of 11 GW. India became a global player in wind energy sector in the past few years and expected to expand modest growth in the future with the strong domestic market. The idea of wind power in India developed in 1990s, and has achieved significant and tremendous growth within the last two decades. The performance and reliability of wind related power increased the installation of more wind turbines across the country and now it became a capacity addition of energy in Indian subcontinent. Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Kerala, West Bengal, Andaman Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep are the Indian states/union territories with high potential of wind energy utilization. At the end of March 2010, Tamil Nadu is having the most wind generating capacity of 4889.765 MW and Muppandal wind farm of Tamil Nadu is the largest in India. Suzlon holds 52% of domestic market share, is the largest wind power company in India. In addition to this Suzlon has risen to worlds 5th largest with 12.3% of the global market share. The Indian wind market achieved quality growth with the government incentives and new policy of GBI (Generation Based Incentive) scheme that helped foreign and domestic private power producers and investors to establish large-scale, commercial wind plants across the country. Turbine technology is improving, that may contribute to higher capacity utilization of wind in future. The modern wind turbines produced in India with foreign collaboration have capacities more than 1 MW and they are highly efficient for a tropical country like India. The country has an advantage in the installation of offshore wind plants with 7,600 km of coast. The concept of wind farm became popular with the higher efficiencies and availability due to the development of wind turbine technology over the last decade. Recent studies shows that wind energy can be combined with solar for the generation of self- sustainable renewable energy projects. The relative immaturity of this sector may not be sustainable with the strong economics of wind energy. India is renowned as wind superpower with an installed potential of 4500MW from thirteen states. Solar Energy India is blessed with rich solar energy resource due to its geographical location. It is calculated that the average intensity of solar radiation obtained on Indian subcontinent is 200 MW/km2 and this amounts to 657.4 Million Mega Watts of energy for the whole 3,287 million square kilometer. By considering these characteristics India can generate enormous amount of energy from this resource and it would be likely thousand times greater than the electricity demand in 2015 even with the theoretical assumption of 10% efficiency for photo voltaic modules. Considering these potentials the country is emerging as a strong hub for solar energy production. The amount of solar energy produced in India is very less when compared to other resources of energy and this accounts to merely 0.4%. As of October 2010 the grid-interactive solar power was about 114.74 MW. Report says that India is currently ranked number one along with the United States in terms of installed solar power generation capacity. The applications of solar energy is active in the fields of telecommunications, lighting, water heating, battery charging, cooking and other small power requirements. Today there is some14-15 lakhs of solar photo voltaic systems in operation and around 6 lakhs solar cookers in use and an area of around 200,000M2 has been developed for solar water heating applications. The present scenario of installed capacity is around 33-35 grid interactive solar photovoltaic power plants with an aggregate capacity of around 2-2.5 MW, that generate around 2.5 million units of electricity per annum, in sharp contrast to the estimated potential of 50,000 MW Solar energy is a perfect alternative for conventional energy in the case of domestic and industrial applications, with an advantage of minimum maintenance and maximum viability. Government of India promoting the installation of new solar and other renewable energy projects by giving tax incentives and rebates. The government of India proposed some large projects in solar energy sector, in cooperation with some private investors. Thar Desert in the state of Rajasthan has been set aside for solar power projects, sufficient to generate 700 to 2,100 Giga watts and it would be the next generation powerhouse of India. The ministry for new and renewable energy aims to bolster the annual photovoltaic production to at least 1,000 megawatts a year by 2017, as part of the National Solar Mission. It is estimated that the power generation capacity in India would have to increase to 306 GW in the next ten years in order to sustain an average growth rate around 10%. India unveiled a $19 billion plan, to produce 20 GW of solar power by 2020.Under the plan, solar-powered equipment and applications would be mandatory in all government buildings including hospitals and hotels. On November 18, 2009, it was reported that India was ready to launch its National Solar Mission under the national action plan on climate change, with plans to generate 1,000 MW of power by 2013. Recent developments in technology made solar power as a clean renewable; zero emission resource harvested using a variety of modern devices. Developed countries like USA Australia are switching over to solar energy as their main source of energ y production. 3.3. Hydropower India was one of the pioneers in the establishment of hydro based electric power plants. Presently India ranks 5th worldwide in terms of exploitable hydro-potential and is also enriched with a large potential of hydro power, of which only around 20% has been utilized so far. It is the most abundant and widely used form of renewable energy in the Indian subcontinent. Electricity is generated in hydro power plants through the use of the gravitational force of falling or flowing water. The hydro electricity is considered as a clean and renewable source of energy but it also have some bad effects in environment clearance due to the large pondage area. About 21% of the electric power consumed in India is generated by hydro electric plants. As of November 2010, the installed hydro power capacity was around 37,400 MW. The public sector has a major share of 97% in this sector. It is clear from the information given by NHPC (National Hydro electric Power Cooperation) that Economically exploitable and viable hydro potential assessed to be about 84,000 MW at 60% load factor (1, 48,701 MW installed capacity). In addition, 6780 MW in terms of installed capacity from Small, Mini, and Micro Hydel schemes have been assessed. Also, 56 sites for pumped storage schemes with an aggregate installed capacity of 94,000 MW have been identified. Thus, in totality India is enriched with hydro-potential of about 2 50 000 MW. The hydro power project t in Darjeeling and Shivanasamudra was established in 1898 and 1902 respectively and was one of the first of that kind in Asia. The Nathpa Jhakri Hydro Power Station (NJHPS) of Himachal Pradesh is the largest hydro power plant in India, with an installed capacity of 1,530MW. It has been estimated that the potential for small hydropower schemes up to 25 MW are under Ministry of Non-Conventional Sources of energy capable of generating 15000 MW per annum. 3.4. Biomass Biomass is defined as A renewable energy resource derived from the carbonaceous waste of various human and natural activities. This can be derived from a number of sources like; agricultural/crops, raw material from the forest, household waste and even with the by-products from the timber industry. There is a sort of high potential of biomass energy available in the country at about 540 million tonnes/year covering resources such as agro residues, firewood, and other organic wastes. These kinds of resources are mainly utilized by the people of villages and rural areas of the country. The potential to install 19500 MW capacities through biomass conservation technologies like combustion, gasification, incineration and also bagasse has been rectified. This sector is in lack of technological advancement and proper utilization so that India could only tap around 380 MW capacities so far. There is a wide scope for the utilization of these resources for the benefit of rural population in the remote areas of India. India ranks 2nd in the utilization of biomass based power generation with an ideal environment of water based vegetation as well as organic wastes. Today bio energy has became an essential add up to Indias energy mix with the favorable climatic conditions. As on October 2010, the cumulative installed capacity of grid-interactive biomass and bagasse cogeneration power was 2313.33 MW. Bio mass sector attracted an investment worth USD 120 million providing vast employment opportunities to village men and also generating an amount of 5,000 million units of electricity in every year. As per the notification in 11th plan period the Government of India plans to add as much as 1700 MW through biomass and bagasse cogeneration in various states. Various promotional policies in the form of incentives, financial assistance, concessions and duty exemption are available for biomass power projects. In addition to these, SERC (State Electricity Regulatory Commission) IREDA (Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency) provides capital subsidies and loans for the setting up of biomass based units. In present day scenario, biomass utilization for generation of energy has gained momentum due to the scarcity of the conventional energy resources as well as to prevent environment from GHG emissions. The development of efficient biomass handling technology, improvement and establishment of small and large-scale biomass-based power plants can play a major role in rural development. The orientation on green power marketing will leads to tremendous growth of the bio energy industry in the future. 3.5. Geothermal energy According to the geological, geochemical, shallow geophysical and shallow drilling data, it is predicted that India has a great potential of geothermal power about 10600 MW. This can be economically harnessed for various purposes including industrial and domestic applications. India holds 15th rank in the utilization and applications of geothermal power when comparing to other leading countries. India will need to depend more on renewable and eco-friendly energy sources in coming days due to the increasing environmental problems and cost with fossil fuel as well as nuclear based projects. Geothermal energy is the natural heat available inside the core of earth. This energy is accessed by drilling water or steam wells in a process similar to drilling for oil. Geothermal energy is an enormous, underused heat and power resource that is clean and reliable. Rocks covered on the surface of India ranging in age from more than 4500 million years to the present day and distributed in different geographical units. Geological survey of India has been identified more than 300 hot spring locations suited for geothermal utilization. Geothermal power projects in India have not been exploited at all due to the abundant supply of coal at comparatively cheap rates. Some of the potential sites for geo thermal in India are listed below Puga Valley-Jammu Kashmir Tatapani-Chhattisgarh Godavari Basin Manikaran-Himachal Pradesh Bakreshwar-West Bengal Tuwa-Gujarat Jalgaon-Maharashtra Unai-Maharashtra India will further strengthen its clean energy portfolio with geothermal energy and open the gates for more investments in the future. The MNRE (Ministry of New and Renewable Energy) of India is moving forward with geothermal and other renewable energy sources by the implementation of research, development and demonstration program. Tidal energy The geographical location of India is most favorable for harnessing tidal energy as the country is surrounded by sea on three sides. Government of India took some initiative for the tidal power development and certain places with potentials have also been located. The most favorable locations are the Gulf of Cambay and the Gulf of Kachchh on the coastal area of Gujarat state. The maximum tidal range in these proposed sites are 11 m and 8 m with average tidal range of 6.77 m and 5.23 m respectively. The Ganges Delta in the Sunderbans in West Bengal also has a very good potential for small scale power projects. As per the surveys and data available, the economic tidal power potential in India is of the order of 8000-9000 MW with about 7000 MW in the Gulf of Cambay about 1200 MW in the Gulf of Kachchh and less than 100 MW in Sundarbans. The proposed project of Kachchh with an installed capacity of about 900 MW is able to generate electricity at about Rs. 0.9/unit. With reference to the recent data available, the first tidal project of India is coming up in Durgaduani Creek of the Sundarbans. The project is aimed on technology demonstration with a capacity of 3.75MW, span over an area of 4.5 KM. Structure of Indian Power Industry Indian power industry comprises of various governmental bodies in charge of installation, generation and supply of electricity. Public owned State Electricity Boards (SEB) is the controlling agency for planning and implementing the power development programmes in their respective states, with major input from resources inside the state. These state level electricity boards are controlled and co-ordinate by the central ministry of power. Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) along with its subsidiaries is in charge of managing all renewable energy projects in India. Ministry of Power: The whole public and private power producers of conventional energy in the country is monitored and managed by this central ministry, previously known as Ministry of Energy. This central agency comprised of separate departments for power, coal and nuclear sources of energy. Ministry of Power is an independent government body with the functions of planning and strategizing the Indian power policies projects. Monitoring power companies, power production plants, power generation and solving the issues of shortfall etc are the responsibilities of this department. The funds are generated by the ministry of government for the public enterprises with the aid of public issues, global funds and international agencies like World Bank, Asian Development Bank etc. The Power Finance Corporation of India provides funds to major projects in power production, transmission and supply of electricity. The Ministry of Power, India is coordinated by the subsidiary organizations in all economic and technical aspects. The subsidiary organizations are as follows: Central Electricity Authority (CEA) National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC) National Hydro Electric Corporation (NHEC) Power Finance Corporation of India (PFCI) Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL) North Eastern Electric Power Corporation (NEEPC) Rural Electrification Corporation (REC) Damodar Valley Corporation (DVC) Bhakra Beas Management Board (BBMB) Tehri Hydro Development Corporation (THDC) Satluj Jal Vidyut Nigam (SJVN) Power Grid Corporation of India Ltd (Power Grid India) Power Trading Corporation (PTC) Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) The generation of electricity in India is based on various sources include thermal power, hydropower, solar power, biogas energy, wind power etc. The distribution of the generated power is committed by Rural Electrification Corporation for electricity power supply to the rural areas, North Eastern Electric Power Corporation for electricity supply to the North East India regions and the Power Grid Corporation of India Limited for an all India supply of electrical power in India. Thermal Power: Generated through the burning of fossil fuels, coal forms a majority share of the source of electricity generation in Indian subcontinent. The generated power from various thermal power stations situated across the country linked through power grids for the distribution. National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC) is responsible for the countrywide operations of thermal power. Hydroelectricity: National Hydro Electric Power Corporation (NHPC) operates hydro electric power plants and power generation companies. Generation of electricity through the kinetic energy of flowing water has been utilizing in Indian land for many years till date. Wind Power: The high potential of wind energy in India encouraged the government to utilize this natural source of energy. Huge wind farms for the tapping of wind energy have been set up by the government to meet the future energy requirement Solar Power: Installation of massive solar panels is being very common in the country, for the utilization of large scale solar energy. Small industrial and domestic applications can be meet with this form of energy. This sector is achieving a high growth with the new government initiatives. Nuclear Power: The energy generated from huge nuclear plants and power stations are making the path for industrial development in India. Nuclear fuels are the source of energy production in these plants. Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCL) manages all nuclear power plants and distributing generated power under the nuclear project scheme.

The Basics Of Trapdoor Hacking Information Technology Essay

The Basics Of Trapdoor Hacking Information Technology Essay For a programmer, trap doors make sense. If the programmer needs to modify the program sometime in the future, he can use the trap door instead of having to go through all of the normal, customer-directed protocols just to make the change. Trap doors should be closed or eliminated in the final version of the program after all testing is complete, but, intentionally or unintentionally, some are left in place. Other trap doors may be introduced by error and only later discovered by crackers who are roaming around, looking for a way into system programs and files. Typical trap doors use such system features as debugging tools, program exits that transfer control to privileged areas of memory, undocumented application calls and parameters, and many others. Trap doors make obvious sense to expert computer criminals as well, whether they are malicious programmers or crackers. Trap doors are an easy way to get into a system or to gain access to privileged information or to introduce viruses or other unauthorized programs into the system. Cases In 1993 and 1994, an unknown group of computer criminals repetitively broke into systems on the Internet using passwords captured by password sniffers. Once on the system, they exploited software flaws to gain privileged access. They installed modified login and network programs that allowed them reentry even if the original passwords were changed. In 1996, Philip Myers described the insertion and exploitation of back doors as subversion in his MSc thesis at the Naval Postgraduate School.   He pointed out that subversion, unlike penetration attacks, can begin at any phase of the system development life cycle, including design, implementation, distribution, installation and production. Donn B. Parker described interesting back-door cases in some papers (no longer available) from the 1990s.   For example, a programmer discovered a back door left in a FORTRAN compiler by the writers of the compiler. This section of code allowed execution to jump from a regular program file to code stored in a data file. The criminal used the back door to steal computer processing time from a service bureau so he could execute his own code at other users expense.   In another case, remote users from Detroit used back doors in the operating system of a Florida timesharing service to find passwords that allowed unauthorized and unpaid access to proprietary data and programs. Even the US government has attempted to insert back doors in code. In September 1997, Congress proposed legislation to ban domestic US encryption unless the algorithm included a back door allowing decryption on demand by law enforcement authorities moved famed Ron Rivest to satire.   The famed co-inventor of the Public Key Cryptosystem and founder of RSA Data Security Inc. pointed out that some people believe the Bible contains secret messages and codes, so the proposed law would ban the Bible. More recently, devices using the Palm operating system (PalmOS) were discovered to have no effective security despite the password function.   Apparently developer tools supplied by Palm allow a back-door conduit into the supposedly locked data. Dumpster Diving What is Dumpster Diving? Dumpster diving is a name given to a very simple type of security attack, which is scavenging through materials that have been thrown away, as shown below. This type of attack isnt illegal in any obvious way. If papers are thrown away, it means that nobody wants them, right? Dumpster diving also isnt unique only to computer facilities. All kinds of sensitive information ends up in the trash, and industrial spies through the years have used this method to get information about their competitors. http://oreilly.com/catalog/crime/chapter/f_02_01.gif Dumpster Diving in Process There is another type of computer-related trash that we might not consider. In the system itself are files that have been deleted, but that havent actually been erased from the system. Computers and users used only to save data, not destroying it, and sometimes some data is saved that shouldnt be saved. Electronic trashing is easy because of the way that systems typically delete data. Usually, deleting a file, a disk, or a tape doesnt actually delete data, but simply rewrites a header record. Using MS-DOS, for example, a file can be deleted via the DEL command, however, someone else can retrieve the contents of the file simply by running UNDELETE. System utilities are available that make it easy to retrieve files that may seem to be completely gone. Although there are methods for truly erasing files and magnetic media, most users who work on large systems do not take the time to erase disks and tapes when they are finished with them. They may discard old disks and tapes with data still on them. They simply write the new data over the old data already on the tape. Because the new data may not be the same length as the old, there may be sensitive data left for those skilled enough to find it. It is far safer to explicitly write over storage media and memory contents with random data and to degauss magnetic tapes. Cases One computer company in Texas that does business with a number of oil companies noticed that whenever a certain company asked them to mount a temporary storage (scratch) tape on the tape drive, the read-tape light would always come on before the write-tape light. The ingenious oil company was scavenging the tape for information that might have been put on it by competitors that used the tape before them. Trashing can have deadly consequences. When some old Department of Justice computers were sold off, they had on their disks information on the whereabouts of witnesses in the Federal Witness Protection Program. Although the data had been deleted, it had not been completely erased from the disk. The DOJ was able to get back some of the computers, but not all, and was forced to relocate the compromised families as a result. In 1991, spies posed as garbage collectors outside of a U.S. defense contractor executives home, dug through trash cans looking for information. One of the collectors was actually Frances consul general and claimed he was collecting fill for a hole in his yard. Upon investigation, the FBI determined that this operation was part of a French secret-searching mission, aimed at finding U.S. military or scientific information. Then in 1999, two key members of a group called the Phonemasters were convicted of theft and possession of unauthorized access devices and unauthorized access to a federal interest computer. This international group of cyber criminals had allegedly penetrated the computer systems of MCI, Sprint, ATT, Equifax and the National Crime Information Center. The Phonemasters skills had enabled them to download hundreds of calling card numbers and distribute them to organized crime groups around the world. Part of their method included dumpster diving and collecting old phone books and system manuals. These tools, combined with social engineering, led to the attacks on the mentioned systems. In 2000, in a widely publicized case, the CEO of Oracle, Larry Ellison, hired private investigators to dig through corporate dumpsters at Microsoft. This was an effort aimed at finding information about Microsofts possible development of grassroots organizations to support its side in an anti-trust lawsuit. One of the investigators unsuccessfully tried to pay off a member of the janitorial service in exchange for the garbage of one of these organizations. Ellison held that his actions were a civic duty, to uncover Microsofts secret funding of such groups, but his opponents assert that the incident was distasteful and scandalous. Microsoft complained that various organizations allied to it have been victimized by industrial espionage agents who attempted to steal documents from trash bins. The organizations include the Association for Competitive Technology in Washington, D.C., the Independent Institute in Oakland, California, and Citizens for a Sound Economy, another Washington D.C. based entity. Microsoft said, We have sort of always known that our competitors have been actively engaged in trying to define us, and sort of attack us. But these revelations are particularly concerning and really show the lengths to which theyre willing to go to attack Microsoft. Saying he was exercising a civic duty, Oracle chairman and founder Lawrence J. Ellison defended his company of suggestions that Oracles behavior was Nixonian when it hired private detectives to scrutinize organizations that supported Microsofts side in the antitrust suit brought against it by the government. The investigators went through trash from those organizations in attempts to find information that would show that the organizations were controlled by Microsoft. Ellison, who, like his nemesis Bill Gates at Microsoft, is a billionaire, said, All we did was to try to take information that was hidden and bring it into the light, and added: We will ship our garbage to Microsoft, and they can go through it. We believe in full disclosure. The only thing more disturbing than Oracles behavior is their ongoing attempt to justify these actions, Microsoft said in a statement. Mr. Ellison now appears to acknowledge that he was personally aware of and personally authorized the broad overall strategy of a covert operation against a variety of trade associations. During the year 2001, industrial espionage came to light concerning the shampoo market between fierce competitors Proctor Gamble and Unilever. Private Investigators hired by Proctor Gamble sifted through garbage bins outside of the Unilever corporation, succeeding in gathering viable information about market analysis, predictions and future products.[16] Upon legal action by Unilever, the two corporations settled out-of-court, because these actions broke Proctor Gambles internal policy on information gathering. Logic Bombs What is a Logic Bomb? Logic bombs are small programs or sections of a program triggered by some event such as a certain date or time, a certain percentage of disk space filled, the removal of a file, and so on. For example, a programmer could establish a logic bomb to delete critical sections of code if she is terminated from the company. Logic bombs are most commonly installed by insiders with access to the system. Logic bombs are a malicious programming code that is inserted into a network system or a single computer for the purpose of deleting data or creating other malicious acts on a specified date. A logic bomb works similar to a time bomb because it can be set to go off at a specific date. A logic bomb does not distribute malicious codes until the specified date is reached. How Logic Bombs Work Logic bombs are created by criminals who are well-versed in computer programming and are generally used to perform acts with malicious intent that threaten network security. The criminal acts include setting a virus to be released into a network system or PC at a specified date or other actions such as deleting or corrupting data and completely reformatting a computer hard drive. A logic bomb works through a code that is inserted into existing software on a network or in a computer where it will lie dormant until a specific event occurs such as a date or time or other command from the computer programmer. When the bomb finally releases the code it can delete files, send confidential information to unauthorized parties, wipe out databases, and disable a network for a period of days. Why a Logic Bomb is Used A logic bomb can be used by a disgruntled employee or other IT personnel that has the knowledge of how to program a logic bomb to threaten network security. Other than targeting a specific computer or network system, a logic bomb can also be used to demand money for software by creating a code that makes the software application into a trial version. After a specific period of time the user must pay a specified sum of money to continue to use the software. Logic bombs can also be used for blackmail and if the demand is not met, the logic bomb will detonate into a computer system or network to destroy data and perform other malicious acts that are included in the command codes. Logic bombs are fairly easy to create if you have a lot of knowledge in computer programming and they do not replicate like other malicious programs. For this reason, logic bombs are usually targeted to specific victims and will not spread to unintended victims. A logic bomb can be rather difficult to detect, however you can take security measures such as constantly monitoring the network system for any suspicious activity, using antivirus applications and other scanning programs that can detect any new activity in the data on a network system. The scanning systems should also monitor the entire network and the individual computers connected to the network. Cases A former system administrator for UBS PaineWebber, Roger Duronio, was charged in a New Jersey federal court on charges of sabotaging two-thirds of the companys computer systems. His alleged motive was to undermine the companys stock price and make a bunch of money in the process. He is alleged to have shorted over 30,000 shares of UBS stock prior to unleashing his attack which means the potential was there to make 30,000 times the amount by which the stock dropped when the media got wind of the attacks. In a recent stock manipulation case involving Emulex, shares fell 50 percent. Based on the trading range of UBS PaineWebber stock at the time of Duronios alleged attack, it is reasonable to say his profits could have exceeded half a million dollars. The flaw in Duronios alleged scheme was the obviously unexpected ability of UBS PaineWebber to prevent news of the attack getting out. This was quite a feat on the companys part because the logic bombs activated on about 1,000 of its nearly 1,500 computers and the malicious programs did actually delete files. Indeed, the company says attack cost it $3 million. In the end, the federal grand jury charged Duronio with one count of securities fraud and one count of violating the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act. Duronio was hit with up to 20 years in prison and fines of more than $1.25 million. In September 1990, Donald Burleson, a programmer at the Fort Worth-based insurance company, USPA, was fired for allegedly being quarrelsome and difficult to work with. Two days later, approximately 168,000 vital records erased themselves from the companys computers. Burleson was caught after investigators went back through several years worth of system files and found that, two years before he was fired, Burleson had planted a logic bomb that lay dormant until he triggered it on the day of his dismissal. Burleson became the first person in America to be convicted of harmful access to a computer. In early 2009, Timothy Allen Lloyd was sentenced to 41 months in prison for leaving behind malicious programs that deleted critical data from the servers of Omega Engineering, a high-tech measurement company that claimed the cost of the attack was $10 million. According to a report in the National Computer Security Association section on CompuServe, the Orlando Sentinel reported in January 1992 that a computer programmer was fined $5,000 for leaving a logic bomb at General Dynamics. His intention was to return after his program had erased critical data and get paid lots of money to fix the problem. In 1995, a disgruntled computer security officer at an insurance brokerage firm in Texas set up a complex series of Job Control Language (JCL) and RPG programs described later as trip wires and time bombs. For example, a routine data retrieval function was modified to cause the IBM System/38 midrange computer to power down. Another routine was programmed to erase random sections of main memory, change its own name, and reset itself to execute a month later.

The Third Bank of the River :: Third Bank River Essays

The Third Bank of the River Beginning shortly before the turn of the last century, there was a noticeable trend towards the ambiguous in modern Brazilian literature. Writers such as Machado de Assis and Jorge Amado have both explored the use of the unstated and the forced compromise between extremes that have grown to be so crucial to the modernist movement. No Brazilian author, however, has mastered the compromise quite like Joà £o Guimarà £es Rosa, a man who was once described as not only leading, but preceding the reader "to a place where there is discord and cacophony under which there is a strange harmony†¦the third bank of the river†¦the land every soul craves for." In his collection of short stories, Primeiras Està ³rias (1962), Rosa pays particularly close attention to ambiguity as a main theme in Brazilian backland writing. First translated to English in 1968 under the title First Stories, Primeiras Està ³rias, and in particular, "The Third Bank of the River," is in many ways the defining work of the Brazilian short story. Carl Jung once said "the confrontation of the two positions [of opposites] generates a tension charged with energy and creates a living, third thing."1 In "The Third Bank of the River," Joà £o Guimarà £es Rosa does just that by first exploring these separate, symbolic opposites in the lives of members of the narrator’s family. He then crafts, out of the conflict, a third position which can be, at best, described as a compromise between the two extremes. Often times, these extremes are the very definitions of characterization we come to expect in a short story, and, by blurring these lines, Rosa is able to also blur "The Third Bank of the River" into a work of ambiguous and allegorical nature. By never exactly defining the third essence that is created, the author is able to explore this clearly important topic in greater depth. The importance of the crossing is that, in every case the author presents, it represents the journey from one position to its opposite, continuing un til the characters reach their final destination: the third, intermediate situation. It is in this way that father’s crossing has a profound effect on the family (most notably the narrator) and the way they conduct the rest of their lives. The important thing to recognize immediately about "The Third Bank of the River" is that it can either be read as a literal retelling of the events or as a metaphor concerning the death of a loved one.

controversial issues :: essays research papers

Controversy is everywhere; people can take the least controversial things and make them controversial just for the sake of arguing about them. There are a lot of issues that are a big concern to people these days; issues that cause debates and become major issues in presidential elections. People take all kinds of views of these very issues and a lot of the time the bible is a big influence on people’s final decisions on how they feel. People believe things are wrong because the bible tells them that it is wrong. No matter what religion you are the bible in a very important piece of history in this society. Things like abortion and homosexuality are frowned upon because of the way the bible is interpreted. People feel that the sixth commandment â€Å"thou shall not kill† also goes for a fetus; or they take that a union is between a man and a woman means that people of the same sex can’t have the same sacred union. People take this out dated piece of history and try to apply it to our society today without taking into account that the human race has changed since the bible has been written.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When the topic of abortion comes up people refer to the bible’s sixth commandment â€Å"thou shall not kill† and they feel that having an abortion is killing a baby no matter what stage of the pregnancy it is in. People feel that abortion should not be legal. Professor of law at the University of Colorado, Paul Campos said, â€Å"Whether or not abortion should be legal turns on the answer to the question of whether and at what point a fetus is a person. This is a question that cannot be answered logically or empirically. The concept of parenthood is neither logical nor empirical. It is essentially, or quasi-religious idea, based on one’s fundamental (and therefore unverifiable) assumptions about the nature of the world.† People have different views on abortion, when it’s acceptable, when its not and some just think that no matter what the circumstances it is never okay. There are people that believe that abortion is only acceptab le under certain conditions such as the woman was raped or she got pregnant due to incest. Some people feel that an abortion acceptable when the woman is in danger. People who are more about the choice of the woman feel that abortion is okay when it is done in the first trimester. controversial issues :: essays research papers Controversy is everywhere; people can take the least controversial things and make them controversial just for the sake of arguing about them. There are a lot of issues that are a big concern to people these days; issues that cause debates and become major issues in presidential elections. People take all kinds of views of these very issues and a lot of the time the bible is a big influence on people’s final decisions on how they feel. People believe things are wrong because the bible tells them that it is wrong. No matter what religion you are the bible in a very important piece of history in this society. Things like abortion and homosexuality are frowned upon because of the way the bible is interpreted. People feel that the sixth commandment â€Å"thou shall not kill† also goes for a fetus; or they take that a union is between a man and a woman means that people of the same sex can’t have the same sacred union. People take this out dated piece of history and try to apply it to our society today without taking into account that the human race has changed since the bible has been written.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When the topic of abortion comes up people refer to the bible’s sixth commandment â€Å"thou shall not kill† and they feel that having an abortion is killing a baby no matter what stage of the pregnancy it is in. People feel that abortion should not be legal. Professor of law at the University of Colorado, Paul Campos said, â€Å"Whether or not abortion should be legal turns on the answer to the question of whether and at what point a fetus is a person. This is a question that cannot be answered logically or empirically. The concept of parenthood is neither logical nor empirical. It is essentially, or quasi-religious idea, based on one’s fundamental (and therefore unverifiable) assumptions about the nature of the world.† People have different views on abortion, when it’s acceptable, when its not and some just think that no matter what the circumstances it is never okay. There are people that believe that abortion is only acceptab le under certain conditions such as the woman was raped or she got pregnant due to incest. Some people feel that an abortion acceptable when the woman is in danger. People who are more about the choice of the woman feel that abortion is okay when it is done in the first trimester.

Pre-Transfusion Blood Tests

Pre-transfusion Blood Tests: Title: To perform the following tests: ABO and RH grouping using the Diamed Gel Card system. Rh and Kell phenotyping (antigen typing) using the Diamed Gel Card system. Direct Coombs Test (DCT) using the conventional tube system. Direct Coombs Test (DCT) using the Diamed Gel Card system. Antibody Identifications (IAT) technique using the conventional tube system. Antibody Identifications (ETC) technique using the Diamed Gel Card system. Name: S. Ward Date: 8/11/2012 Introduction: The objective of this practical is to perform some pretransfusion tests, using various methods.Pretransfusion testing is carried out in all hospital blood bank laboratories and is used to minimise the risk of encurring a haemolytic transfusion reaction. Haemolytic transfusion reactions occur when a patient is transfused with red cells which have a foriegn antigen on the cell surface that the patient has an antibody to. While the ABO and Rh blood group systems are the most antigeni c and thus can cause severe haemolytic transfusion reactions. The other blood group systems can also cause a (less severe) haemolytic reaction, these reactions can be fatal and so the procedures to avoid them are of great importance.Materials & Method: Not all tests were performed by all members of the class. ABO and Rh blood grouping using the Diamed Gel Card system; performed. Rh and Kell trying using the Diamed Gel Card system; not performed. Direct Coombs Test (DCT) using the Diamed Gel Card system;not performed. Antibody Identification (ETC) technique using the Diamed Gel Card system; performed but not centrifuged so no results were obtained. Antibody Identifications (IAT) technique using the conventional tube system; performed Direct Coombs Test (DCT) using the conventional tube system; erformed. Cell 1% suspensions were prepared for the bench from a 3% cell suspension provided. Results: As well as some tests not being completed by everyone, some results were not obtained as t here was a queue for the ID centrifuge. Results below are ones obtained by myself; ABO & Rh grouping; Known O+ cells were tested. Expected results would be; However, the gel matrix had dried out so no results were obtained. Antibody Identifications (IAT) technique using the conventional tube system; + + + – – + – – + +When these results are compared with the ID panned profile, its is seen that there is no antigen which matches the antibody in the patient's plasma. Traditional Direct Coombs test results was positive. Discussion: The results from this practical were not as expected. With regard to the ABO Rh typing, the expected result for the O+ blood tested is as shown above. The reason why the results obtained were incorrect were because the gel had dried out. This shows that it is very important to ensure that the reagents used in the transfusion laboratory are of a really high quality to ensure that all results obtained are reliable.With regard to the traditional antibody profile, it is seen that there is no antigen which matches the antibody in the patient's plasma according to the ID panel. It is possible that the patient has an uncommon antigen which isn't on the ID panel. However, it's more likely that there was human error in labelling the reaction tubes 1-10. The direct coombs test checks to see in vivo sensitisation to IgG antibodies. The traditional coombs test results for this practical showed aggultenation when treated with antihuman globulin, which is a positive result.Results for the other laboratory tests using Diamed Gel Card system were unobtained due to there being a queue for the centrifuge. A brief explanation of all these tests is explained below; ABO & Rh D grouping; this can be done by conventional tube technique, as performed previously, or can be done using the Diamed Gel Card system. These gel cards contain known antobodies on a gel matrix. A positive result shows the red cells kept at the top of the gel m atrix, a negative result sees the red cells going down through the matrix to the bottom of the card.This has replaced the traditional method as it allows for automation. Rh & Kell phenotyping; this is done using the Diamed Gel Card sytem and is similiar to the ABO and Rh typing method. This shows which, if any of the main Rh or Kell antigens are on the patients red cells. The results are read in the same manner as the ABO and Rh D as described above. Direct Coombs Test using the conventional tube system; The direct antiglobulin test is used to detect in-vivo sensitisation and detects small IgG antibodies on a patient's red cells.The conventional tube method involves washing the cells three times for one minute, resuspending each time, then finally adding two drops of antihuman globulin and centrifuge once more for 20 seconds and results were recorded. This process is laborious and so can be replaced with the next method. Direct Coombs Test using the Diamed Gel Card system; The gel c ard system involves the addition of 1% cell suspension of test cells to the Anti IgG card, this is centrifuged for 10 minutes and results are recorded. This method also shows in-vivo sensitisation and detects small IgG antibodies on the patient's red cells.Antibody Identifications (IAT) technique using the conventional tube system; Antibody identification is used as a follow-up test to a positive indirect antiglobulin test. The antibody identifcation test is used to determine the red cell antibodies in the patient's plasma. If one or more clinically significant red cell antibodies are identified, then donor blood that lacks the corresponding red cell antigens must be used for tranfusion, this is reffered to as antigen negative blood. The conventional tube system involves reacting the patients plasma with the 10 commercial identification cells.This is incubated for 30 minutes at 37Â °c, each of the reaction tubes are washed 3 times for one minute, resuspended after each time and the n two drops of antihuman globulin are added and the tubes are centrifuged for an additional 20 seconds and results are recorded. This process is laborious, and so can be replaced by the gel card system which can be automated. Antibody Identifications technique using the Diamed Gel Card system; The method is the similiar to the other gel card systems and the principle it the same as the other antibody identification.As mentioned bofore, this process allows for automation and so is favoured in large labs. Questions: Principle of the Direct and Indirect Coombs test: The principle of the Coombs' test is that addition of rabbit anti-human IgG to the patient's blood will result in aggregation of the patient's red cells if the red cells are coated in small IgG antibodies that will not agglutenate normally at room temperature. So, the direct antiglobulin test is used to detect in-vivo sensitisation to IgG antibodies. Applications:The direct coombs test is udes to test for autoimmune haemoly tic anaemia. The indirect coombs test can be used to detect very small amounts of antibodies present in a patients plasma and if used in antenatal care to screen pregnant women for antibodies that may cause haemolytic disease of the newborn. It can also be used for compatability testing, antibody identification, RBC phenotyping and titration studies. Controls: The positive control is sensitised O+ cells and the negative control is O- cells.

Unit SHC 51: Use and develop systems that promote communication

24. 10. 2012 Unit SHC 51 Use and develop systems that promote communication Criteria: 1. 1,1. 2,1. 3 – Review the groups and individuals whose communication needs you must address in your work role. Explain how you support effective communication within your work role. Analyse the barriers and challenges to communication within your work role. Communication can be defined as information transfer. This can be exchange of thoughts,messages,feelings. The way we transfer information is by speech,signals or writing ,to express oneself in such a way that one is really and clearly understood.We all use a variety of communication techniques to both understand and be understood. Without communication nothing would get done,no information would be passed on. Communication take place to inform ,to support,educate,give and receive instruction,keep records,liaise and coordinate. All these communications can assist any or all of the service users and key people in the health and social care and children and young people’s settings . In this sectors communication is used to talk about needs,concerns,attitudes and feelings as well as to impart information.Communication is vital for those who desire and for those already working in the childcare sector. In this sector practitioners need to build relationships with children,their parents and other relevant authorities. As a practitioner I communicate with parents ,colleagues,children and other professionals ,such as health visitors,social workers,medical stuff,sales reps,visitors to the setting,other managers. Therefor I make sure that everybody is provided with the necessary information they need. My communication has to be clear and concise – both verbal and written.Without these skills I cannot engage productively with individuals ,in my case these are children,colleges,parents and family members,outside agencies. Without communication the world would be a lonely place and communication is particularly im portant in my work role as it can affect the relationships I build. Team communication is important as it is essential to keep everyone in the group knowledgable about what is going on within our work setting. To enable my team to do this successfully ,my colleges have to ensure their relationships grow and blossom,as they relay mainly on effective communication.The first time I meet a new parent or child it is important that I am friendly and welcoming. This is the start of the relationship and it is good to begin with firm foundations and that they get a positive feeling about me. The day-to-day conversations, of asking â€Å"How are you? † or just asking about someone’s weekend slowly build up rapport with a parent or child and gradually the relationship moves on from that first friendly â€Å"hello† as I get to learn more about them and they learn more about me.To gain and share information I find out information from the parents and children to help me do m y job effectively and ensure that the needs of the children are met. I gain a good knowledge of the children and in return I share information with them. It is also beneficial for me to build relationships with other professionals so that I may gain and share information with them to help us run our setting effectively. To gain reassurance and acknowledgement whilst working with young children I give them reassurance physically with positive comments and acknowledge them by showing that I am interested in what they are doing.Reassurance and acknowledgment is also important to me ; by children being content in my setting and their parents acknowledging that they are happy with care their children are receiving. Communication takes vital and huge part of my work role as a manager and for me being a successful and meaningful communicator is essential . Our survival and success as humans has been dependent on our ability to communicate. People communicate for different reasons: to teach ,to learn,to relate.Along with these I use communication to maintain and promote good working relationships,to encourage the children to communicate effectively,to ensure that everybody knows where they stand,to get my colleagues their point across and ensure safety in the work environment,to help people understand how I feel and act accordingly,to work together and prevent errors,express my wants and needs,to help build and maintain trust,to negotiate and liaise with others.To support and develop my communication skills as a manager I make sure that I keep myself up-to-dated with all the relevant informations and news and pass them on to the relevant authorities. To keep my communication effective I use one way method : fax,e-mail,memo,voice mail,letter; two way method: -in person,phone calls; collaborative method: -team meetings,consulting,decision making,group problem solving. In my work role as a manager, one of the ways I ensure the correct methods of communication are being as sessed and used effectively for the service users within my setting, is to review care plans.I do this during supervisions with the key workers, I check that the needs and wishes of the children are being met, and recorded appropriately. I also ensure that the way information is recorded is done so in such a format that can be understood by all that need to read it( large print and avoid using jargon. ) I also maintain contact with family members, care managers via email and the telephone to ensure that all necessary information is passed on. This can be formal or informal.Part of my role is to help the staff to develop care plans, a large part of that is aimed at ensuring the staff understand the importance of identifying the best method of communication based, on each individual needs, if someone is non verbal use of signs or pictures or has sight problems using large print etc. I make sure that the key workers know the importance of acting as an advocate to ensure the rights of t he individual are met, and to giving support and guidance on how best to achieve this.One of the ways that I inform my stuff and the parents of up-and-coming events is to use a notice board, which is located in a visible part of the setting and is written using appropriate wording and text. To support effective communication in my work role is also important to build respect in business,inspire confidence,develop a distinct personality and reveal my ability to others. It is vital in establishing effective relationships in my work setting by allowing practitioners to expect support from colleagues/management and to provide them with the necessary support in times of stress and difficulty.Effective communication is one of the most important sources of my work. When practitioners communicate effectively with children this benefits massively on their learning and development,and they become to trust and respect them as practitioners. Family and friends know me well and will usually unde rstand me, even if I communicate poorly or very informally. Communicating with people at work is different because it is important that colleagues communicate respect for each other. Colleagues who do not show respect for each other may fail to show respect to the people who use the setting.I often have to greet colleagues by asking if they are well and spend time on ‘warm-up talk’ in order to show that I value them. I need to demonstrate that I am a good listener and can remember details of conversations with my colleagues. Colleagues have to develop trust in each other. It is important to demonstrate that I respect the confidentiality of conversation with colleagues. My work setting has its own social expectations about the correct way to communicate thoughts and feelings,which is in difference with the social expectations when communicating with my friends and family.Although communication between colleagues may often be informal it is important that they use skilled communication in order to develop respect and trust. As there has been,and will continue to be,an increase in the demand for good communication skills,as everyday life is becoming more complex and most jobs now need good communication skills,as it is crucial for progress in our changing world. In my work role ,as in all health and social care settings, there are barriers that affect my communication. These barriers are sometimes extremely difficult to overcome or very easy.The reasons that can block my communication can vary- difference in culture and values;personal feelings and difficulties in my own life;feeling unsafe or unwell,tired;not listening effectively,environment factors. Environmental factors that influence communication: It is very hard to hear what someone is saying if there is a lot of background noise. It is also very difficult to make sense of other people’s facial expressions if I can’t see their faces properly due to poor lighting. Rooms with awkwa rd seating positions might mean that a group of people cannot see each other comfortably.People sometimes feel uncomfortable if they are trying to communicate with a person who is too close or at a distance. A room that is too hot, stuffy or cold may inhibit communication if it makes people feel tired or stressed. The environment also plays an important role in the effectiveness of communication aids. For instance, hearing aids will amplify background noise as well as the voice of the speaker. A noisy environment may therefore be difficult and unpleasant for someone who is using a hearing aid. Good lighting will be critical for someone who supports their understanding of speech with lip reading.Time limits can also interfere with communication. Barriers associated with personality, self-esteem, anxiety and depression: Sometimes people can create their own barriers because they feel stressed by the emotional needs of the people they work with. Listening to others can involve hearing about frightening and depressing situations. People sometimes stop listening in order to avoid painful emotions. Tiredness, lack of time or a desire to avoid emotional stress can create a barrier to providing caring communication.Building an understanding of another person and establishing a ‘caring presence’ can be very difficult when their personality or self-esteem needs create a barrier. Many people who are depressed or anxious experience negative thoughts that ‘just come to them’. Attempting to understand these thoughts and feelings can feel like trying to find a way through a brick wall. It may feel as if there is an emotional barrier preventing the person from experiencing any positive emotions. Sensory impairment and disability: A sensory impairment means that a person’s senses do not work effectively.Impairments create the first kind of communication barrier, where information is not fully received. Disability is not the same as impairment. Some people experiencing barriers because of their difference may have a communication disability. In my work role I come across with people who suffer with a variety of disabilities or learning difficulties. If I meet a person who has visual disability then I would have to support him/her in order for communication and interpersonal interaction to be effective. It would be important for me to have appropriate resources such as glasses,magnifiers and high quality surroundings such as lighting.Along with these I need to use a clear tone and voice and speak louder so the person can understand what is being said,as him/her wouldn’t be able ti lip read. Hearing disability is another communication barrier. If I am communicating with someone who is partly or fully deaf ,then I have to take into consideration the environment in which the communication takes place. Physical disabilities,such as speech impediment, could cause difficulty in communication. In this case ,the use of sighs and symbols,used in different ways (facial expressions and hand gestures) can help my practice.Barriers associated with assumptions: Building an understanding of other people’s needs takes time and effort. Jumping to conclusions and making assumptions can save mental effort and time, but assumptions may cause me to misinterpret what another person is trying to communicate. For example, I might believe that I don’t need to listen to a person because I already know what his/her needs are. Assumptions can create a barrier because people stop listening and checking their understanding of other people’s communication. Some people make assumptions that people who have a disability are damaged ‘normal’ people.When disabled people are seen in this way, they might be pitied or ignored. Difference in culture and values: Many cultures have different beliefs about suitable communication between people,for example they may consider certain body language and han d gestures appropriate ,but others may find it offensive. An example of this is the â€Å"thumbs up† hand gesture ,which is commonly used to show that something is good or OK,but it is an insult if you were to show somewhere in Iran, Afganistan,Nigeria and parts of Italy and Greece. Also,a language in part part of the country could be different from somewhere else in this country (dialects).Accents and dialects can be confusing to understand the same for accents, in Britain there are many of these such as â€Å"Geordie† and â€Å"Cockney Rhyming Slang†. In my work role I must understand and respect people’s cultural backgrounds,thinking before I speak or make a certain action ,whether it is appropriate. Effective communication in my work role is also to make sure that the people know that what is said is kept confidential,and that I will not judge them based on what is said. I must be sensitive to the people’s needs and feelings,by not discriminati ng,judging or showing negative body language towards them.

The difference between incidence and prevalence data

Statistical data can enhance insights by establishing the relationship of events or factors to a population. However, the value and validity of these insights depends on the researchers’ skill in using data available for their research. Therefore there is a need to understand the distinctions and uses of these data to be able to develop insights regarding the population or set of information. One example understands the difference between incidence and prevalence data. By understanding characteristics unique to each, researchers will be able to use them appropriately and effectively.DistinctionsIncidence refers to the probability that an individual will be fall under a constraint within a given period of time (Casella & Berger, 2001). In epidemiology, this refers to the chances that an individual will contract a specific in a particular time period. The rate of incidence is computed as a factor of the population susceptible to the constraint. Prevalence, on the other hand is d efined as the probability that a constraint given a population (McClave & Sincich, 2006). Extending the definition to epidemiology, this refers to the likelihood of an individual in a population to acquire the disease. Its rate is derived from dividing the number of diagnosed cases over the total population.The distinction between the two sets of data is based on the time and population it refers to. Incidence has a time frame or range while prevalence only considers the current data or data at a specific time. With regards to population, incidence is measured based on a constraint, usually defined because of its vulnerability to the diseases, whereas prevalence considers the whole population. If prevalence data is diminished, it means that disease is being eradicated versus in incidence where diminishing values only indicate the degree by which medical interventions are able to treat the disease (Bertoni et al, 2004). Furthermore, prevalence is the cumulative measure of incidence a s of the time period which can differ significantly from incidence values (Casella & Berger, 2001).UsesIncidence data is often used when studying new and or short-term events. The data is independent from data gathered from other time periods, measuring only the newly diagnosed cases and does not consider populations who still have the condition or disease. As a measure of success in medical intervention, it measures the rate of success of treatments of the disease’s symptoms. They are often utilized when conditions being studied are curable or when symptoms can become absent or in studies periods of vulnerability for a disease (Bertoni et al, 2004). Thus, in the study of respiratory sensitization and allergy n due to reaction enzyme producing plant, incidence data was used because the focus of the study the significance of exposure and host factors to employee reactions (Larsen, 2007). Incidence rates will better measure this relationship since the production of the enzymes that produce the sensitivity is seasonal and the population is limited to the employees who are exposed to the plants.Prevalence data in contrast is used more for long-term studies. As mentioned, it is a cumulative measure and therefore considers new and old diagnoses. It is often used in chronic illnesses or conditions whose symptoms will always fall under the constraints characterized for it. There is a presumption of the continuance of the disease or condition and the date is used often in conjunction with periodic measures.Thus, in the measure of effectiveness of vaccination against Hepatitis A in north-eastern Italy, prevalence data were used because the concern was the success of the preventive measures for drug users in low prevalence areas: the measure is not among the population the cases that will be reported and the comparison of data is annually (Lugoboni et al, 2005). Prevalence studies will better develop insights to the success rate of the intervention, in this case v accination against Hepatitis A, because vaccination implies that focus is on the non-occurrence of the condition and at the same time, the focus is not short-term.ReferencesBertoni, Alain G., Hundley, W. Gregory, Massing, Mark W., Bonds, Gregory Denise E., Burke, L. and Goff, David C. Jr. (20004). Heart Failure Prevalence, Incidence, and Mortality in the Elderly With Diabetes. Diabetes Care, 27: 699.Casella, George and Berger, Roger L. (2001)Statistical Inference, 2nd Edition. London: Â  Duxbury PressJohnsen, A. I. C. R. , Frickmann, J. and Mikkelsen, S. (2007). Incidence of respiratory sensitisation and allergy to enzymes among employees in an enzyme producing plant and the relation to exposure and host factors. Occup. Environ. Med., 64: 763 – 768.Lugoboni, Fabio, Quaglio, Gianluca, Pajusco, Benedetta, Foroni, Blengio, Maurizio Gianstefano, Talamini, Giorgio, Mezzelani, Paolo and Des Jarlais, Don C. (2005). Prevalence of hepatitis A among drug users in north-eastern Italy: Is vaccination necessary in low prevalence areas? Eur J Public Health, 15: 464 – 466.McClave, James T. and Sincich, Terry (2006). Statistics,10th Edition. by New York: Prentice Hall